Unearthing the Origins of Plantation Slavery on São Tomé

THE FOREST-SHROUDED ESTATE

On an island 300 kilometers west of mainland Africa, in 2020, our small team began down a barely visible path flanked by shoulder-high, shimmering capim grass. Soon the tropical forest thickened. Lush felt like an understatement. There are stories of old men’s staffs taking root and sprouting while their owners chatted.

We were heading to rumored ruins of an engenho—a Portuguese word for sugar mill—on the African island nation of São Tomé e Príncipe. We followed Edsiley Encarnação, the only person from the village who said he knew the place and could “take us there, no problem.”

In choking humidity, Edsiley forged ahead, carving the way with his machete. We did not travel far, but it took time to hack through the tall grass. About 20 minutes later, we reached our destination: Praia Melão, the island’s largest mill and estate from the 16th to 19th centuries.

Adjacent to a water channel, one large room housed hydraulic mills that crushed sugar cane. The captive workers would have then pressed the pulp into syrup. Other production steps, such as boiling the syrup to crystalize the sugar, probably took place in one of the two smaller ground-floor rooms. The owner’s living quarters occupied the upper floor, with windows looking into the work area for surveillance.

During a survey in 2022, we found graffiti on the work area walls that expresses the religious and symbolic worldviews of those who toiled in the mill centuries ago. Our excavations in 2023 focused mainly on the area just outside the ruins, with limited testing inside the building itself.

We uncovered items such as pieces of cone-shaped clay molds used to harden the sugar, which speak to the work that occurred. Other objects, including fragments of African ceramics and a cowrie shell, show the perseverance of cultural traditions among the enslaved workers.

Reconstructing their experiences and Praia Melão’s place in history will take more research. But this can be challenging in a country where no archaeology has been done before.

INTRODUCING ARCHAEOLOGY

The São Tomé central government has no experience with archaeological research or sites. While most African countries have defined guidelines for obtaining research permits and heritage is closely legislated, São Tomé lacks pertinent regulations.

Furthermore, the insidious mindset of colonialism has influenced what is considered “heritage.” In official circles, cultural heritage is equated with Tchiloli—a theater tradition performed with masks, music, and dance. The exoticism of Tchiloli has made it the beneficiary of international funding.

During our 2023 excavation season, a UNESCO team was visiting São Tomé to document and register Tchiloli as intangible heritage. Apssy da Trindade, one of our project team members who is also trained as a local tourist guide, remarked to us rhetorically, “Why don’t we hear about this site, archaeology, and slavery?” Ruins of a sugar mill do not fit the government’s notion of heritage.

Establishing archaeology in São Tomé hinges on individuals in positions of power. During Cruz’s first trip to the country, the Heritage Office’s then-director responded happily when she requested to meet, seeking collaboration and input. They discussed in detail research goals. The director’s longest-serving staff member joined the 2022 survey as a research assistant and has remained a valuable collaborator.

But political appointees pervade the Heritage Office. After a recent election, all decision-makers have been replaced, curtailing program continuity and professional development among staff.

Community engagement and participation also proved difficult. Local involvement was integral to our research plans and core values. The people living around the site are mainly Angolares. Likely descendants of Maroon communities that resisted enslavement and lived isolated for more than three centuries, they continue suffering discrimination and disadvantage in São Tomé.

But decision-makers doubted the local residents would care about the work. They explicitly prohibited our project from doing community outreach without the political establishment’s direct approval, which has yet to materialize. During an early meeting, a high-level government official stated dismissively that people in the country had no interest in historic heritage.

MAKING ARCHAEOLOGY LAST LOCALLY

Contrary to that official’s views, we found that many locals craved knowledge about their ancestors’ history and heritage. When talk of our project spread organically, Santomeans and visitors wanted to contribute.

A young bar owner tried to arrange a meeting with politicians using his social network. The owner of a construction company donated wood and had his carpenter make screens for the field school. A local surveyor discounted his fee to map the site. A German photographer made a drone video. The district mayor brought the engenho’s preservation to the attention of Parliament. A Santomean news crew working for a Portuguese channel visited to interview members of our excavation team. Children from neighboring houses eagerly carried buckets of soil and helped screen. The list goes on.

The obstacles presented by public officials and elites forced the research team to pursue alternative avenues for community participation and collaboration. We hired two local young men to work on the excavation and subsequent site stewardship. They are slowly building a network, which we hope will broaden inclusion.

For now, curious Santomeans, the site neighbors, and young people who walk to the river have engaged with our team. The district mayor is committed to establishing dialogue with the central government. Pamphlets, conversations, and radio interviews seem to be forging awareness of who we are and what we are doing.

In 2023, four local university students joined our field school and remained involved. One is pursuing a fellowship in Portugal. Another will write a senior thesis connected to the work. Going forward, these Santomeans can do outreach in the Praia Melão village and in communities throughout São Tomé where archaeological sites have yet to be identified.

Most significantly, one of our local team members was able to gain employment doing archaeological fieldwork for a Portuguese cultural resource management company. We look forward to a future in which Santomean archaeologists take over the work of unearthing their past.

UNSHROUDING THE PLACE BEST AVOIDED

Introducing archaeology in a context where people are unfamiliar with it requires patience and ongoing effort and negotiation. But we catch glimpses of how our work will lift the curtain on hidden aspects of the country’s history.