Teaching
The Problems With Coming of Age
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Unit 8
Nature Versus Nurture
In this unit (to accompany SAPIENS podcast S6E4), students will learn the origin of the nature versus nurture debate within the field of anthropology and explore where the debate currently stands. Students will examine the ways in which nature and nurture intersect and explore how the lens of nature versus nurture shaped Derek Freeman’s and Margaret Mead’s understanding of the Samoan people.
Learning Objectives
- Explore the concept of nature versus nurture from an anthropological standpoint and the ways the two intersect.
- Express how Derek Freeman’s and Margaret Mead’s writings on Samoa incorporated the idea of nature versus nurture.
Sapiens articles
What Our Skeletons Say About the Sex Binary
Society increasingly accepts gender identity as existing along a spectrum. The study of people, and their remains, shows that sex should be viewed the same way.
Genetic Factors May Help Explain Athletic Sudden Death
Biological anthropologists and other researchers investigate why there is a diversity of symptoms and outcomes in people with sickle cell trait.
Keywords
View All in Evolution
![A person wearing a bright-pink jacket, brown slacks, tennis shoes, and a tan, brown, and black hat crouches on a patch of brown dirt with a small instrument in one hand and a bag in the other, collecting a sample from an archaeological site.]()
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![Three small animals with tufts of white fur around their ears and gray, tan, and black fur on their bodies huddle together looking toward the camera.]()
![An ape-like mannequin, with protruding facial features and a body covered in fur, stands in a museum exhibition under dramatic lighting. Next to it, a text panel starts, “The human story begins.”]()
![A bearded man in a vest and red scarf holds up his two hands in loose blue gloves, with a small tooth in each hand.]()
![A historic black-and-white photograph shows a small group of workers on the floor of a pin manufacturing plant tending to rows of machines.]()
Ancient Tools in East Asia Reveal Middle Paleolithic Innovation
An archaeologist explains his team’s insights into how Quina scrapers in southwest China overturn long-standing assumptions about the region’s humans more than 50,000 years ago.
Connecting Local Communities to Paleoanthropology in Kenya
On Rusinga Island, a grassroots group is celebrating the field assistants who helped find famous fossils and inspiring future generations to study science and ancient history.
Were Twins the Norm in Our Primate Past?
New research uncovers how the last common primate ancestors typically birthed twins until evolutionary pressures began to favor singletons—likely driven by the advantages of birthing larger, brainier offspring.
Lessons From Lucy
Fifty years ago, the remains of an Australopithecus afarensis ancestor, named “Lucy” by archaeologists, rewrote the story of human evolution.
Unraveling a “Ghost” Neanderthal Lineage
Remains in France found by archaeologists and geneticists suggest at least two lineages—not just one—of late Neanderthals in Europe.
How Allocating Work Aided Our Evolutionary Success
Societies divide labor by gender and age. A biological anthropologist considers when and why this behavior arose.
View All in Genetics
![Rolling hills feature elongated human-made rows in the landscape covered by green grass, with a bright blue sky and scattered white clouds above.]()
![A gray-haired woman sits on an exam table in a light-filled doctor’s office and looks out a window.]()
![A person wearing a black robe crouches beside a white building to tend to a bed of pea plants.]()
![A large group of people walks down a tree-lined street, with some holding colorful flags.]()
![In a dark and rainy forest, a large Tyrannosaurus rex stares into a green car with its headlights on. The car has a yellow and black graphic on its hood with text that reads, “Jurassic Park.”]()
![Surrounded by an otherwise occupied crowd, a person wearing a white cap and shirt uses gloved hands to work with the finger of a person seated beside them. The second person wears a red-orange dress and holds a baby while a slightly older child stands beside them, looking at the viewer.]()
In Iron Age Britain, Descent Was Matrilineal
New analyses from Iron Age burials reveal that women remained in their natal communities and provided the key to kinship. The findings offer essential clues about gender roles and social structures in ancient Europe.
Doctors Are Taught to Lie About Race
Decades ago, anthropologists dispelled the myth of biological race. Lagging behind in scientific understandings of human diversity, the medical profession is failing its oath to “do no harm.”
People Are Not Peas—Why Genetics Education Needs an Overhaul
The decades out-of-date genetics taught in most U.S. schools stokes misconceptions about race and human diversity. A biological anthropologist calls for change.
Can Ancient DNA Support Indigenous Histories?
A biological anthropologist reflects on how scientific research can be used to reaffirm or undermine Indigenous land ties in Argentina.
Celebrity Status Almost Ruined Ancient DNA Research
An evolutionary anthropologist draws lessons from paleogenetic’s journey from Jurassic Park fiction to Nobel Prize reality.
Gene Therapy’s Promise Meets Nigeria’s Sickle Cell Reality
Breakthrough treatments can now cure sickle cell anemia in the U.S. But the pricey therapies will hardly help in Nigeria, where social changes could do more for millions impacted by the disease.
View All in Race
![A winged insect with black, white, and red coloring descends out of a clear blue sky. Vicki Jauron/Babylon and Beyond Photography/Getty Images]()
![A person in sunglasses and a white N-95 face mask stands in a street holding a sign that reads: “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.” Behind them, other demonstrators congregate.]()
![A person in army fatigues walks in front of a looming surveillance tower flanked by high fences topped with barbed wire.]()
![A gray-haired woman sits on an exam table in a light-filled doctor’s office and looks out a window.]()
![A black squirrel sits atop a trash can in a busy urban setting, with a crowd of people out-of-focus in the background.]()
![Two pairs of scissors, two rocks, and two slips of paper rest on a pale-yellow surface.]()
“Stop This Invader!”—The War on Spotted Lanternflies
An anthropologist reflects on the racist undertones of some U.S. efforts to eradicate the spotted lanternfly, an insect from Asia deemed invasive.
Fighting for Justice for the Dead—and the Living
A group of forensic anthropologists argues their field must reject the myth of pure objectivity and challenge systemic inequities through advocacy and activism.
An Order for My Backpack and Three Stages of Nowhere
A poet moves through rituals of silence and erasure that permeate the U.S. military prison at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.
Doctors Are Taught to Lie About Race
Decades ago, anthropologists dispelled the myth of biological race. Lagging behind in scientific understandings of human diversity, the medical profession is failing its oath to “do no harm.”
Are People Projecting Racist Stereotypes Onto Squirrels?
Researchers refute a popular idea that black-furred squirrels behave more aggressively than gray ones—and suggest the myth stems from some people’s racist attitudes.
Playing Rock, Paper, Scissors Across the Red-Blue Divide
As toxic polarization deepens in the U.S., some global conflict prevention experts are now addressing political violence at home. An anthropologist shares three key insights from a community action program in Wisconsin.
Glossary
Cultural Determinism
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The belief that an individual’s culture influences one’s behavior and emotions.
Eugenics
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A scientifically inaccurate theory that strives to select and reproduce desirable hereditary characteristics in order to improve future generations.
Professor Talking Points
- During the 19th century, the prevalence of Darwinism and evolutionary theory prompted scholars to distinguish between two causes for animal traits and behavior: natural (biological, hereditary) and environmental (upbringing, culture, surroundings). Sir Francis Galton coined the phrase for this debate as “nature versus nurture.” Lead students in a discussion about this topic.
- The biologist H. M. Parshley, a key player in the debate, argued for the importance of nature and favored biological determination, eugenics, and hereditary traits. Auguste Weismann was another key player, and he promoted the theory that natural selection drove evolution. In contrast, J. B. Watson and Franz Boas believed nurture determined behavior. J. B. Watson popularized the theory of behaviorism in psychology and argued that a child’s environment shapes their behavior. Boas, Mead’s mentor and professor, promoted cultural determinism and is credited with the theory of cultural relativism. He argued that a culture’s practices and traditions must be understood within that culture. Explore the debate with students.
- The theory that nature governs traits and behavior was a well-established dogma and was used to support racist ideologies by classifying humans into hierarchies based on biological differences. Lead a discussion with students on how it was thus difficult initially for Boas and his followers to find support for the alternate theory of cultural determinism.
- Freeman claimed that “The Boasians had an antipathy to biology, and to genetics and evolutionary biology in particular” (The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead 1998, 295). Explore with students how he used this argument as evidence against Mead’s conclusions about the Samoans.
- Freeman’s second book focuses on providing a detailed ethnography of the Samoans and pointing out Mead’s errors. The book includes a history of how the nature versus nurture debate began, its standing at the time of publication, and an explanation for why Boas pushed against accepting any genetic study for behaviors.
- Mead had her own understanding of nature versus nurture. Regarding adolescence, Mead wrote: “If the same process takes a different form in two different environments, we cannot make any explanations in terms of the process, for that is the same in both cases. But the social environment is very different, and it is to it that we must look for an explanation” (Coming of Age in Samoa 1928, 159).
- Anthropologist Paul Shankman points out the lack of evidence and incorrect conclusions Freeman makes in his argument against Mead. Shankman notes that Freeman overemphasized the popularity of Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa, disregarded her acknowledgment of biology (and promoting genetics in anthropology in general), and failed to provide transcripts for his hoax-claim interviews. Time and location also played a factor: Mead was in American Samoa in the 1920s, while Freeman was in a different part of the islands in the 1940s and 1950s.
- Today many experts use the words “genetics” and “environment” interchangeably for nature and nurture, respectively. “Environment” encompasses a broader range of interactions that are not solely from parents and caregivers. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists were divided and felt compelled to pick a dominating factor in individual development. Today it is widely accepted that both genetics and environment play a role in human development.
- Epigenetics, the study of how genes are expressed, has added an additional layer of complexity to the nature versus nurture discussion in recent decades. Experts have found that some early childhood environmental factors may dictate what parts of an individual’s genetic code are “turned on.”
Academic Articles
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Barlow, Fiona Kate. 2019. “Nature vs. Nurture Is Nonsense: On the Necessity of an Integrated Genetic, Social, Developmental, and Personality Psychology.” Australian Journal of Psychology 71 (1): 68–79.
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Levitt, Mairi. 2013. “Perceptions of Nature, Nurture and Behaviour.” Life Sciences, Society and Policy 9 (13).
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Schneider, Susan M. 2007. “The Tangled Tale of Genes and Environment: Moore’s the Dependent Gene: The Fallacy of ‘Nature vs. Nurture.’” Behavior Analyst 30 (1): 91–105.
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Shankman, Paul. 2000. “Culture, Biology, and Evolution: The Mead–Freeman Controversy Revisited.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 29 (5): 539–556.
Student Discussion Questions
- How did eugenics spark a response to the cultural determinism movement in anthropology? Who were some of the major players?
- What is the crux of the nature versus nurture argument? Can the two sides work together to explain human behavior?
- In their respective works, did Freeman and Mead acknowledge both nature and nurture in relation to developing human behaviors or do they both strictly adhere to their ideals?
- What is the status of the nature versus nurture controversy in anthropology today?
- How has the argument for nature versus nurture changed over the past 150 years? Where do you see nature versus nurture being debated today?
- Is it enough to cite a single example claiming nature or nurture are responsible for human behavioral development or are multiple instances required to prove a theory? For example, is Mead’s work in American Samoa enough to prove the nurture theory is applicable in all instances of adolescent behavior or should it be viewed alongside examples of adolescents in the United States?
Activities
- Select an anthropological study on human behavior. Discuss if the study demonstrates a nature, nurture, or mix of both explanations of human behavior.
- Write an essay exploring Freeman’s claim that Mead omitted biological discussions in her work in American Samoa. Does she purposefully deny nature’s impact on human behavior or simply focus on cultural (nurture) factors?
- List ways the perception of nature versus nurture in anthropology has evolved in recent decades given new discoveries, understanding, and technologies.
Additional Resources
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Article: Evan Nesterak’s “The End of Nature Versus Nurture”
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Article: Hunter Honeycutt’s “Nature and Nurture as an Enduring Tension in the History of Psychology”
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Article: Psychology Today’s “Nature vs. Nurture”
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Book: Carl Degler’s In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought
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Book: Derek Freeman’s Margaret Mead and Samoa: The Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth
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Book: Derek Freeman’s The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research
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Book: Margaret Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa
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Podcast: Steven Pinker’s “Nature vs. Nurture: What’s More Impactful” in The Life of the Mind
Unit By
Catherine Torres, Freedom Learning Group
Teaching
The Problems With Coming of Age
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Unit 9
Colonialism and Christianity in the South Pacific
